?feral

feral發(fā)音

英：[?fer?l]　　美：[?f?r?l, ?f?r-]

英：　　美：

feral中文意思翻譯

adj.野生的, 兇猛的

feral常見(jiàn)例句

1 、An Australian has come up with a novel solution to the millions of feral cats roaming the Outback：eat them.───一名澳洲人提出一種解決數百萬(wàn)在澳洲內地四處游蕩野貓的新方法：吃掉牠們。

2 、"Molten Armor": This ability will no longer be triggered erroneously by some non-melee attacks, such as "Feral Faerie Fire".───“熔巖甲”：該技能現在將不會(huì )被非近身攻擊錯誤地觸發(fā)，比如“野性精靈之火”。它同時(shí)也將不會(huì )打破控制效果，比如“變形術(shù)”。

3 、Inquisition of the midgut digestive enzyme activity difference between lab reared and feral Periplaneta americana───人工飼養和野生美洲大蠊消化酶活性差異研究

4 、Through this philosophy, they gain a deep understanding of their inner Beasts, feral instincts and boundless rage.───在這樣的哲學(xué)觀(guān)中，他們對自己內心的獸性、不羈的本能和無(wú)盡的憤怒有了深刻的認識。

5 、That cat is feral, and you need to take it to the pound.─── 這就是個(gè)野貓 你得把它送去動(dòng)物收容所

6 、One minute more, and the feral roars of rage were again bursting from the crowd.───再過(guò)一分鐘，群眾中又爆發(fā)出一陣憤怒的吼聲。

7 、Histopathology of Feral Fish from a PCB-Contaminated Freshwater Lake───受多氯聯(lián)苯污染的淡水湖泊野生魚(yú)類(lèi)的組織病理學(xué)

8 、Though completely immobile, Karko was able to sap the essense of the Anzati, slowly degenerating them into savage, feral shadows of their previous forms.───盡管卡科身體被禁錮，他還是能吸取安扎特人的精髓，讓他們慢慢退化野蠻兇殘的低等動(dòng)物。

9 、Aroma: Complex nose with a lot going on. Savoury feral barnyard characters, mingle with lifted violets and rhubarb characters. Stalks there as well. leather and boot polish characters.───口感:口感集中，渾厚有力。大量的單寧酸使其保持濃厚、結實(shí)的口感，是一款酒體結構極佳的黑比諾

10 、They probably come from a feral cat background, and were not touched or socialized as babies.───它們可能來(lái)自一個(gè)野生的貓族，并沒(méi)有被人撫摸或當成寶貝的經(jīng)歷。

11 、His powerful form, clotted with filth and blood, fuelled the citizenship's fears of this feral menace.───他那覆蓋著(zhù)污穢和鮮血的強大外形，更加深了民眾對于這野蠻未知物的恐懼。

12 、No one is dare to get close to the dog as it is too feral.───他們的狗太兇猛了，所以沒(méi)有敢靠近它。

13 、A little while, wild female thought of her suddenly to raise an eagle in the hole, see stranger is very feral, be afraid that the student gets hurt, more quickness is chased and go.───一會(huì )，野女突然想到她在洞里養了一只鷹，見(jiàn)到生人很兇猛，怕書(shū)生受傷，更急速追趕而去。

14 、For a feral monster, very helpful in the kitchen.─── 作為兇猛野獸 她在廚房里很會(huì )幫忙

15 、Shift to Dire Bear From and Feral Charge from any form───從任何形態(tài)變?yōu)樾芎鬀_鋒

16 、If they are not careful, they eventually become as feral as the werewolves of legend.───如果他們不夠謹慎，最終就會(huì )變成狼人傳說(shuō)中那樣的野性?xún)传F。

17 、You didn't tell me she was so feral.─── 你可沒(méi)告訴我她性子這么烈

18 、Improved Faerie Fire moved to Feral Tree. Requires Faerie Fire (Feral).───增強精靈火移到了野性樹(shù)。

19 、If we ever moved Omen around, we would also juggle Feral talents.───如果我們移動(dòng)了清晰預兆，我們則也會(huì )修改整個(gè)野性天賦。

20 、Improved Faerie Fire (Feral): Now also works with spell hit, in addition to ranged and melee hit %.───強化精靈之火（平衡）這里原來(lái)是野性，應該是筆誤：現在也增加法術(shù)命中。

21 、Its fur is thick,even around the grafted metal plates.and its face is a twisted,feral mask of rage.───他的皮毛很厚重，光華的皮毛四周嫁接著(zhù)金屬板。同時(shí)他的面孔是扭曲的，就象是一個(gè)狂暴的野獸。

22 、Feral Strike - eye gouge and strike, 60 degree front arc, up to 3 targets, 432-508 common dmg───驚奇攻擊從潛行狀態(tài)下有很高的幾率暴擊,從身后也會(huì )獲得更高傷害.

23 、I am the man in charge here, not this feral little monster.─── 我是老大 不是這個(gè)兇猛的小野獸

24 、Other researchers put the number of feral cats higher, at around 12 million animals.───其他研究人員認為野貓的數目還要多，大約有1200萬(wàn)只。

25 、Definitely pine torch, feral Jin Lian is beautiful, honeysuckle is together make tea, can you reduce weight?───決明子，野生金蓮花，金銀花在一起泡茶，能減肥嗎？

26 、But he said more recently it had "fallen foul" of persecution, urban development and, increasingly, hybridisation with domestic feral cats.───但是他指出，這一物種最近更多受到環(huán)境污染、城市發(fā)展和越來(lái)越多野貓家貓雜交的威脅。

27 、The normal armor on leather will still be multiplied by this bonus.We are also going to remove bonus armor from Feral staves.───但是皮甲上的護甲值仍然可以得到加成.另外,我們也將移除野性法杖上面的護甲.

28 、Item - Druid T10 Feral 2P Bonus - Your Swipe (Bear) and Lacerate abilities deal 20% additional damage and the cost of your Rip ability is reduced by 10 energy.───德魯伊野性套2件效果：使你的橫掃（熊形態(tài)）和割傷技能提升20%額外的傷害，你的割裂消耗的能量值減少10點(diǎn)。

29 、For example, we aren't bamboozled by the numbers into thinking shadow priests or feral druids (for example) are where they need to be.───但，比如說(shuō)，我們并不會(huì )被被暗牧或者野德（只是舉例子）的人數所迷惑，而去考慮暗牧或者野德哪里需要去改善。

30 、In Hong Kong, the main reason leading to congregation of feral pigeons is feeding by the public.───在本港,市民喂飼野鴿是導致它們群集的主要原因。

31 、In political thought respect, "Left " thing resurgence, in media, academia and academic group, the tide of economy of a critically market upsurges, the force with which sth breaks out is feral.───在政治思想方面,“左”的東西死灰復燃,在媒體、學(xué)術(shù)界和理論界,一股批判市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟的潮流涌起,來(lái)勢兇猛。

32 、Despite its scaly shield, the species is still considered vulnerable to extinction because of non-native rats, feral cats, and dogs that feed on iguana eggs and young.───盡管其鱗片盾牌，物種是仍然被視為易于滅絕，因為是非土生老鼠，野貓，和狗的飼料在鬣蜥蛋和青少年。

33 、They are Portuguese millipedes - and every year these feral pests invade parts of southern Australia in plague proportions.───它們還糟蹋后庭的菜地和果園。這些瘋狂的害蟲(chóng)每年都侵犯澳大利亞南部的部分地區。

34 、Feral Faerie Fire: The damage generated by this ability in Bear Form and Dire Bear Form has been increased substantially.───怎么沒(méi)有人提到我們的熊熊多了一招瞬發(fā)攻擊技呢?

35 、The “Faerie Fire (Feral)” talent has been removed andreplaced in position by Improved Faerie Fire。───天賦野性精靈之火被移除改為增強精靈之火。

36 、If either team switch to me then I ususall, tiger, run away feral charge etc until cherekee can cc.───如果他們打我，我通常變貓跑遠變熊沖鋒直到獵人可以控制他們。

37 、She stalked into the center of the dance-floor and cast her gaze upwards, a feral gleam in her eye.───/ 她進(jìn)入跳舞的中心之內悄悄靠近- 地板而且以上投了她的注視,她的眼睛野生的微弱閃光。

38 、Feral cats, on the other hand, would do quite well: there would be plenty of birds for them to eat.───另一方面，野貓會(huì )過(guò)得相當愜意，屆時(shí)他們將有很多鳥(niǎo)可吃。

39 、When a feral cat see a mouse,the cat runs away.Why?───一只兇猛的餓貓，看到老鼠，為何卻撥腿就跑?

40 、The snaky tunic was laced with streamers of blood, and the feral eyes were dimmed, as though some internal curtain had rolled down to block the light within.───他纏在身上的束腰外衣上，散落著(zhù)一道道的血跡，那雙目光兇猛的眼睛，暗淡失色，就象是那里面，放下了一層窗簾，將內部的光線(xiàn)遮擋住了。

41 、An Australian has come up with a novel solution to the millions of feral cats roaming the Outback: eat them.───一名澳洲人提出一種解決數百萬(wàn)在澳洲內地四處游蕩野貓的新方法：吃掉??恰

42 、Peaceful Guo Yelan is sweet, the appearance seems swallow end, endoplasm has quiet and tastefully laid out feral fragrant throughwort the flower is sweet.───寧國野蘭香，外形似燕尾，內質(zhì)具有幽雅的野生蘭草花香。

43 、Added a new Glyph of Claw for young feral druids who haven't yet obtained Mangle. Inscribers can learn this glyph from the trainer.───為還不會(huì )裂傷的幼齡德魯伊添加新的爪擊雕文，銘文師可在訓練師處學(xué)到該銘文。

44 、An ironclad mauler`s powerful limbs end in long,deadly claws,and its face is a twisted and feral version of a normal bear`s face.───一只裝甲暴（泰迪）熊擁有強大的長(cháng)長(cháng)的四肢，鋒利的爪子，比一般的熊類(lèi)看上去更扭曲的面孔。

45 、We will go back and change any old glove bonuses referencing Maim as an interrupt to the new Feral glove bonus of reduced cost on Maim.───我們會(huì )重新關(guān)注這個(gè)，并且改變以往的任何提及割碎技能產(chǎn)生反制效果的手套特效，使新的手套特效變成減少割碎技能的消耗。

46 、the peoples of Davin becoming savage feral tribes.───居民變成粗野的蠻荒部落。

47 、Practical and politic: Common fruit, feral fruit should eat.───實(shí)用策略：普通水果、野生水果都要吃。

48 、Ever since my early research in California during the 1970s on the feral ass in Death Valley, I had been interested in their ancestors in the desert mountains of Africa.───其實(shí)早在1970年代，我在美國加州死谷研究野生驢的時(shí)候，就對牠們生活在非洲沙漠山谷內的祖先十分好奇。

49 、Spaying and neutering of stray or feral cats will cut down on transmission in these cat populations.───如果幫流浪貓咪結育可以減少此疾病在此貓群的傳播.

50 、"Feral Charge" now suppresses all Slowing effects while charging the target.───"野性沖鋒"現在在沖向目標時(shí)不受所有減速效果影響.

51 、You summon a feral, gangly creature of shadow and mist to do your bidding.───你召喚出一個(gè)野蠻瘦長(cháng)的陰暗模糊的生物，完全聽(tīng)命于你。

52 、Humane Trapping Instructions for Feral Cats.───人道捕捉指南。

53 、when we found that boy, he was like a feral cat.─── 我們找到那孩子的時(shí)候 他就像只流浪貓

54 、A feral fox runs past the front door of 10 Downing Street in London, before a meeting between Britain's Minister Gordon Brown and Israel's Prime Minis-ter Ehud Olmert, Dec. 16, 2008.───12月16日，英國首相布朗和以色列總理奧爾默特在唐寧街10號首相府舉行會(huì )談前，一只野生狐貍跑過(guò)英國首相府的大門(mén)口。

55 、Primal Tenacity (Feral) now reduces damage while stunned by 5/10/15%, and reduces the duration of fear effects by 5/10/15%.───原始堅韌（野性第七排）：現在改為減少5/10/15%昏迷時(shí)所受到的傷害（小倩倩要淚流滿(mǎn)面了？），同時(shí)減少5/10/15%懼怕持續時(shí)間

56 、Home's famous cork crude place of production is in Shaanxi 5 old forest, among them Qinba is a mountainous area and feral oak is resourceful, occupy the 50% above of countrywide crop about.───國內有名的軟木生產(chǎn)地在陜西五大林區，其中秦巴山區野生橡樹(shù)資源豐富，約占全國產(chǎn)量的50%以上。

57 、David Attenborough narrates this documentary following feral cats in their struggle for status amongst the ruins of Trajan's Forum, in the bustling heart of Rome.───大衛艾登堡在這部紀錄片中將敘述，在繁華的羅馬市中心地帶的圖拉真廢墟，野貓對領(lǐng)地的爭奪展開(kāi)的斗爭。

58 、Survivors of a feral flesh-eating clan are chowing their way through the locals.───從食人族口中逃脫的幸存者正在尋找穿過(guò)當地的道路。

59 、'cause she was like a feral mongoose.─── 因為她就像一只充滿(mǎn)野性的貓鼬

60 、Feral Essence - Increases damage by 50% per stack. The Feral Defender starts with 9 stacks, and can use one to revive himself every time he dies.───兇猛精華-每疊加一層,增加50%傷害.兇猛防衛者開(kāi)始有9層,每死一次可以消耗一層用來(lái)重生.(大概是這個(gè)意思

61 、The normal armor on leather will still be multiplied by this bonus.We are also going to remove bonus armor from Feral staves.You'll get your bonus armor from the leather you acquire.───但是皮甲上旳護甲值仍然能得到加成.另外,我們也將移除野性法杖上面旳護甲.

62 、Investigation and research of feral bird resources in wetland of East Dongting Lake───東洞庭湖濕地野生鳥(niǎo)類(lèi)資源調查研究

63 、Feral cats, which arrived with the British in 1788, now occupy most of the continent.───1788年與英國人一起抵達澳洲的野貓，現在占據澳洲大陸大半區域。

64 、But under the Pacific Northwest's lead-gray skies, a feral flock of colorful parakeets flies around Seward Park, a 300-acre island of green in southeast Seattle where they have taken up residence.───但是在太平洋西北部鉛灰色的天空下，一群色彩絢麗的野生鸚鵡在蘇渥公園周?chē)P(pán)旋。這座公園位于西雅圖東南部一個(gè)面積為300英畝的綠色島嶼上，這些鳥(niǎo)兒們在這里“安家落戶(hù)”。

65 、Discovered by outsiders in 1979, the crested iguana’s numbers are rapidly dwindling due to the brisk spread of introduced species, such as feral cats and black rats.───冠鬣蜥自1979年被來(lái)自島外的人們發(fā)現以來(lái)，由于隨之引入的例如野貓和黑鼠等外來(lái)物種的迅速蔓延，他們的數量正在急劇縮減。

66 、On the armor thing, I still feel like you are trying to turn this into “GC doesn’t understand Feral itemization.───關(guān)于護甲方面，我覺(jué)得你們還是認為我不懂野德。

67 、One of the grey areas in the Australian debate is the link between domestic and feral cats───在澳大利亞的辯論中，一個(gè)懸而未決的問(wèn)題是家貓同野貓之間的關(guān)系問(wèn)題。

68 、Vast expanses of untamed wilderness punish intruders with feral brutality.───廣闊無(wú)邊的無(wú)羈荒野用野性的殘忍懲罰入侵者。

69 、I should feed his balls to feral cats.─── 我應該把他的蛋割下來(lái)喂野貓的

70 、Feral Charge ? This ability will now port you even if the target is immune to the effect.───沖鋒-這個(gè)技能現在即使目標免疫它的效果，也動(dòng)能讓你沖向他?

71 、but panic about feral youths menacing upright citizens and misspending the best years of their lives has not gone away.───但是，對野性未馴的年輕人威脅正直的市民，浪費自己的大好年華的恐慌卻沒(méi)有消失。

72 、She soon fell in love with fellow student Scott Summers, and later would develop a strong attraction towards one of the team's new recruits, the feral Wolverine.───她很快地愛(ài)上了同學(xué)史考特·桑默斯,而且即將成為正式隊員之一，而金剛狼也被她的氣質(zhì)所強烈的吸引著(zhù)。

73 、Never try to grab a feral cat if he/she is escaping.───不要試著(zhù)抓取一只野生的貓如果他/她正在逃脫。

74 、Feral Pounce - Stuns and damages his target for 602 to 698 (Heroic: 972 to 1,128) Shadow damage every 1 second, for 4 seconds.───兇猛一撲-擊暈并且造成對目標每秒602-698(英雄972-1128)暗影傷害,持續4秒.

75 、Sampling Survey of Feral Cats in Urban Beijing───北京市區流浪貓密度的初步抽樣調查

76 、If be not taken out at the outset so sad original story, although the tiger is feral, but because of misgive, awe-stricken, dare not eat off it from beginning to end.───假如當初不拿出那么一點(diǎn)可憐的本事，虎雖然兇猛，但因疑慮、畏懼，始終不敢吃掉它。

77 、We don't want you to be able to get all Feral talents and OoC.You can be a good bear， good cat， get good PvP talents or get Omen.───我們不希望你們能所有野性天賦和清晰與早兼得，你可以做一個(gè)優(yōu)秀的熊，一個(gè)優(yōu)秀的貓，得到好的PVP天賦或是得到清晰預兆。

78 、Fortunately, its intelligence is still that of a feral spider, except with the ability to understand such simple commands as "stay," "sit," and "stop playing with the halfling's corpse.───幸運的是，他們的智力與普通的活毒蜘蛛差不多，除了可以理解一些簡(jiǎn)單的命令，比如“停下”，“蹲下”或是“不要玩那具半身人的尸體”。

79 、Legendary ancestors once found it relatively easy to balance their feral instincts against their human wisdom, but no longer.───對神話(huà)中的先祖們來(lái)說(shuō)保持野性本能和人類(lèi)聰慧的平衡很簡(jiǎn)單，但是現在不是了。

80 、After eating feral mango very how to after itching, do?───吃了野生的芒果后很癢后怎么辦？

81 、Feral populations have sprung up in Sydney, Perth and Hobart from the release of unwanted birds.───因為在悉尼、佩思和霍巴特的多余鳥(niǎo)類(lèi)放養而使得種群快速生長(cháng)。

82 、Paton estimates that Australia has about 3.8 million feral cats, which kill about 3.8 billion native animals a year───佩頓估計澳大利亞大約有380萬(wàn)只野貓，每年殺死大約38億只本地的動(dòng)物。

83 、Unfortunately, the only way to do that was through a van of feral cats.─── 可是要阻止他倆 必須穿過(guò)一車(chē)野貓

84 、Proterozoic is feral planting often is to grow in crows, rarely plant diseases and insect pests is invaded.───原生地野生種往往是成群生長(cháng),很少有病蟲(chóng)害侵襲。

85 、About Alley Cat Allies The mission of Alley Cat Allies is to protect the lives and promote the wellbeing of stray and feral cats.───為了解救五月岬的貓咪，請前往任務(wù)是保護野生與流浪貓的生命并促進(jìn)其福利的街貓聯(lián)盟線(xiàn)上請愿。

86 、He revels in blood and battle, using his wolfish persona to draw the feral beasts to his side and imbue his allies with his flesh-shredding strength.───他總是浸**于鮮血與戰斗之中，運用其狼的本性引來(lái)猛畜助他殺戮，而他撕骨碎肉的狂力似乎也將彌于友軍身上。

87 、I have a serum that can keep you from going feral.─── 我有種血清 能阻止你發(fā)狂

88 、Feral bird feeding incurs five penalty points under marking scheme.───喂飼野鳥(niǎo)弄污地方會(huì )被扣五分。

89 、Murray said the repellant,made of fatty acids and sulphurous compound sex tracted from tiger excrement,also worked on feral pigs,kangaroos and rabbits and might deter deer,horses and cattle too.───墨里表示,這種"防羊劑"的成分包括從老虎的糞便中萃取的脂肪酸和硫磺的混合物,同樣適用于驅趕野豬、袋鼠和野兔,同時(shí)或許也能驅趕鹿、馬及牛等。

求關(guān)于社會(huì )化的英文材料，越多越好

About ZHU Ling

Twelve years ago, ZHU Ling was a bright, talented and promising chemistry student at Tsinghua University, Beijing - one of the most prestigious and selective universities in all of China. Enthusiastic, intelligent and attractive, she was an active member of the college folk music team, and was already considered by many to be a model student with a wonderful future.

In December of 1995, all of this changed when ZHU Ling suddenly took ill. Her hair began to fall out; she lost the ability to speak; her face became paralyzed; her arms and legs could no longer support her; and she was slowly losing her vision. Medical experts were unable to explain her condition until a description of her symptoms on the Internet yielded the likely culprit: Thallium poisoning.

Thallium - a naturally occurring heavy metal, often used as the active ingredient in rat poison - produced exactly the same symptoms as those plaguing ZHU Ling. With this as a diagnosis, her physicians were able to successfully treat her condition and remove most of the toxic metal from her system. Even so, this short exposure left her almost completely blind with permanent paralysis and severe neurological damage.

ZHU Ling's family - who had already suffered the loss of one daughter to an unfortunate accident - was devastated by this latest tragedy, made all the worse because, to date, no one has been able to explain how or why the poison was introduced into ZHU Ling's system.

Many theorize that ZHU Ling's friend and college roommate - with unrestricted access to the toxic substance - was the most likely poisoner, although repeated questioning by authorities yielded no more information in this regard. To date, no one has been held accountable for this horrible crime.

For almost 10 years since the poisoning, ZHU Ling's family has suffered the daily pain, anguish and financial burden of caring for a - now severely - disabled daughter. Monthly expenses of over 5,000 RMB (about $625 dollars) are needed for her ongoing care and rehabilitation, and she still has a long way to go.

Twelve years ago, Mr. Bei Zhicheng created a telemedicine miracle in helping to diagnose and treat ZHU Ling's poisoning - although ultimately his efforts turned out to be in vain. ZHU Ling remains in a desperate situation. The poison she ingested so long ago ravages her body still and, as she advances into middle age, her chances for further recovery diminish.

Let us help this once gifted, smart and pretty girl, who is now struggling for her very survival ... before it is too late. Let us help her reach more hi-tech medical treatment and rehabilitation, and maybe, the miracle of her survival 12 years ago can be repeated in her cure. Let us also offer our love and support to this grieving and stricken family.

ZHU Ling and her family need your help now! Your contribution will go a long way toward easing her suffering, assisting in her daily upkeep, and holding out the promise of a brighter and better tomorrow.

求關(guān)于社會(huì )化的英文材料，越多越好

http://books.google.com.sg/books?hl=en&id=ctOIjOIWOXoC&dq=Socialization+&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=pX8Cutfrri&sig=NIi_XGore-fjYbbBS8NYsyAKeD4

http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/baldwin/classes/soc142/scznDEF.html

http://anthro.palomar.edu/social/soc_1.htm

社會(huì )化 Socialization

The term socialization is used by sociologists, social psychologists and educationalists to refer to the process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it. For the individual it provides the resources necessary for acting and participating within their society. For the society, inducting all individual members into its moral norms, attitudes, values, motives, social roles, language and symbols is the ‘means by which social and cultural continuity are attained’ (Clausen 1968: 5).

Socialization

Clausen claim that theories of socialization are to be found in Plato, Montaigne and Rousseau and he identifies a dictionary entry from 1828 that defines ‘socialize’ as ‘to render social, to make fit for living in society’ (1968: 20-1). However it was the response to a translation of a paper by George Simmel that brought the term and the idea of acquiring social norms and values into the writing of American sociologists F. P. Giddings and E. A. Ross in the 1890s. In the 1920s the theme of socialization was taken up by Chicago sociologists, including Ernest Burgess, and the process of learning how to be a member of society was explored in the work of Charles Cooley, W. I. Thomas and George Mead. Clausen goes on to track the way the concept was incorporated into various branches of psychology and anthropology (1968: 31-52).

Based on the joint study of Shanta and Narayan, Nepal Institute of Health Science

In the middle of the twentieth century socialization was a key idea in the dominant American functionalist tradition of sociology. Talcott Parsons (Parsons and Bales 1956) and a group of colleagues in the US developed a comprehensive theory of society that responded to the emergence of modernity in which the concept of socialization was a central component. One of their interests was to try to understand the relationship between the individual and society – a distinctive theme in US sociology since the end of the nineteenth century. Ely Chinoy, in a 1960s standard textbook on sociology, says that socialization serves two major functions:

On the one hand, it prepares the individual for the roles he is to play, providing him with the necessary repertoire of habits, beliefs, and values, the appropriate patterns of emotional response and the modes of perception, the requisite skills and knowledge. On the other hand, by communicating the contents of culture from one generation to the other, it provides for its persistence and continuity. (Chinoy, 1961: 75)

For many reasons – not least his excessive approval of modern American life as the model social system and his inability to see how gender, race and class divisions discriminated against individuals in ways that were unjustifiable – Parsonian functionalism faded in popularity in the 1970s. Reacting to the functionalist notion of socialization English sociologist Graham White, writing in 1977 said:

… it is no longer enough to focus on the malleability and passivity of the individual in the face of all powerful social influences. Without some idea about the individual’s own activity in shaping his social experience our perspective of socialisation becomes distorted. (White 1977: 5).

During the last quarter of the twentieth century the concept of ‘socialization’ has been much less central to debates in sociology that have shifted their focus from identifying the functions of institutions and systems to describing the cultural changes of postmodernity. But the idea of socialization has lived on, particularly in debates about the family and education. The institutions of the family or the school are often blamed for their failure to socialize individuals who go on to transgress social norms. On the other hand, it is through a critique of functionalist ideas about socialization that there has been an increasing acceptance of a variety of family forms, of gender roles and an increasing tolerance of variations in the ways people express their social identity.

Forms of socialization

Sociologists may distinguish six kinds of socialization:

Reverse socialization

Developmental socialization

Primary socialization

Secondary socialization

Anticipatory socialization

Resocialization

Primary socialization Primary socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture.

For example if a child saw their mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behaviour is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.

Secondary socialization Secondary socialization refers to process of learning what is appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. It is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. eg. entering a new profession, relocating to a new environment or society.

Developmental socialization Developmental socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social institution or developing your social skills.

Anticipatory socialization Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Resocialization Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113). Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with their past, and needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example might be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military.

Agents of Socialization

Agents of socialization are the people and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behavior. (Henslin, 2006)

The Family. Family is responsible for, among other things, determining one's attitudes toward religion and establishing career goals.

The School. The school is the agency responsible for socializing groups of young people in particular skills and values in society.

Peer groups. Peers refer to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social characteristics (e.g., students in a college class).

The Mass Media.

Other Agents: Religion, Work Place, The State.

Media and socialization

Theorists like Parsons and textbook writers like Ely Chinoy (1960) and Harry M. Johnson (1961) recognised that socialization didn’t stop when childhood ended. They realized that socialization continued in adulthood, but they treated it as a form of specialised education. Johnson (1961), for example, wrote about the importance of inculcating members of the US Coastguard with a set of values to do with responding to commands and acting in unison without question.

Later scholars accused these theorists of socialization of not recognising the importance of the mass media which, by the middle of the twentieth century were becoming more significant as a social force. There was concern about the link between television and the education and socialization of children – it continues today – but when it came to adults, the mass media were regarded merely as sources of information and entertainment rather than moulders of personality. According to these scholars, they were wrong to overlook the importance of mass media in continuing to transmit the culture to adult members of society.[citation needed]

In the middle of the twentieth century the pace of cultural change was accelerating, yet Parsons and others wrote of culture as something stable into which children needed to be introduced but which adults could simply live within. As members of society we need to continually refresh our ‘repertoire of habits, beliefs, and values, the appropriate patterns of emotional response and the modes of perception, the requisite skills and knowledge’ as Chinoy (1961: 75) put it.

Some sociologists and theorists of culture have recognised the power of mass communication as a socialization device. Dennis McQuail recognises the argument:

… the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and punishment for different kinds of behaviour as represented in the media. An alternative view is that it is a learning process whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations and the expectations which go with a given role or status in society. Thus the media are continually offering pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance of actual experience. (McQuail 2005: 494)

Total institutions

The term "total institutions" was coined in 1963 by Erving Goffman, designed to describe a society which is socially isolated but still provides for all the needs of its members. Therefore, total institutions have the ability to resocialize people either voluntarily or involuntarily. For example, the following would be considered as total institutions: prisons, the military, mental hospitals and convents (Schaefer & Lamm, 1992: 113).

Goffman lists four characteristics of such institutions:

All aspects of life are conducted in the same place and under the same single authority.

Each phase of a members daily activity is carried out in the immediate company of others. All members are treated alike and all members do the same thing together.

Daily activities are tightly scheduled. All activity is superimposed upon the individual by a system of explicit formal rules.

A single rational plan exists to fulfill the goals of the institution...

Gender socialization and gender roles

Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76).

Resocialization

Resocialization is a sociological concept dealing with the process of mentally and emotionally "re-training" a person so that he or she can operate in an environment other than that which he or she is accustomed to. Resocialization into a total institution involves a complete change of personality. Key examples include the process of resocializing new recruits into the military so that they can operate as soldiers (or, in other words, as members of a cohesive unit) and the reverse process, in which those who have become accustomed to such roles return to society after military discharge.

resocialization

Socialization for animal species

The process of intentional socialization is central to training animals to be kept by humans in close relationship with the human environment, including pets and working dogs.

Ferality

Feral animals can be socialized with varying degrees of success. Feral children are children who lack socially accepted communication skills. Reports of feral children, such as those cited by Kingsley Davis, have largely been shown to be exaggerations, or complete fabrications, with regards to the specific lack of particular skills; for example, bipedalism.

Cats

For example, the cat returns readily to a feral state if it has not been socialized properly in its young life. A feral cat usually acts defensively. People often unknowingly own one and think it is merely "unfriendly."

These cats, if left to proliferate, often become "pests" in populated neighborhoods by decimating the bird population and digging up people's yards. Feral cats are sometimes helpful when used in agriculture to keep rodent and snake populations down. Such cats are often referred to as "barn" cats.

Socializing cats older than six months can be very difficult. It is often said that they cannot be socialized. This is not true, but the process takes two to four years of diligent food bribes and handling, and mostly on the cat's terms. Eventually the cat may be persuaded to be comfortable with humans and the indoor environment.

Kittens learn to be feral either from their mothers or through bad experiences. They are more easily socialized when under six months of age. Socializing is done by keeping them confined in a small room (ie. bathroom) and handling them for 3 or more hours each day. There are three primary methods for socialization, used individually or in combination. The first method is to simply hold and pet the cat, so it learns that such activities are not uncomfortable. The second is to use food bribes. The final method is to distract the cat with toys while handling them. The cat may then be gradually introduced to larger spaces. It is not recommended to let the cat back outside because that may cause it to revert to its feral state. The process of socialization often takes three weeks to three months for a kitten.

Animal shelters either foster feral kittens to be socialized or kill them outright. The feral adults are usually killed or euthanized, due to the large time commitment, but some shelters and vets will spay or neuter and vaccinate a feral cat and then return it to the wild.

Dogs

In domesticated dogs, the process of socialization begins even before the puppy's eyes open. Socialization refers to both its ability to interact acceptably with humans and its understanding of how to communicate successfully with other dogs. If the mother is fearful of humans or of her environment, she can pass along this fear to her puppies. For most dogs, however, a mother who interacts well with humans is the best teacher that the puppies can have. In addition, puppies learn how to interact with other dogs by their interaction with their mother and with other adult dogs in the house.

A mother's attitude and tolerance of her puppies will change as they grow older and become more active. For this reason most experts today recommend leaving puppies with their mother until at least 8 to 10 weeks of age. This gives them a chance to experience a variety of interactions with their mother, and to observe her behavior in a range of situations.

It is critical that human interaction takes place frequently and calmly from the time the puppies are born, from simple, gentle handling to the mere presence of humans in the vicinity of the puppies, performing everyday tasks and activities. As the puppies grow older, socialization occurs more readily the more frequently they are exposed to other dogs, other people, and other situations. Dogs who are well socialized from birth, with both dogs and other species (especially people) are much less likely to be aggressive or to suffer from fear-biting.

References

Chinoy, Ely (1961) Society: An Introduction to Sociology, New York: Random House.

Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialization and Society, Boston: Little Brown and Company.

Johnson, Harry M. (1961) Sociology: A Systematic Introduction, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

McQuail, Dennis (2005) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory: Fifth Edition, London: Sage.

Parsons, Talcott and Bales, Robert (1956) Family, Socialization and Interaction Process, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

White, Graham (1977) Socialisation, London: Longman.

Michael Paul Rhode, Smithsonian Dep. of Anthropology

See also

Internalization

Reciprocal socialization

Social construction

structure and agency

社會(huì )化是一個(gè)社會(huì )學(xué)、社會(huì )心理學(xué)與教育學(xué)上的名詞，指學(xué)習所處文化，并逐漸適應於其中的過(guò)程。對個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)，社會(huì )化是學(xué)習同時(shí)扮演社會(huì )上不同的角色的過(guò)程。個(gè)人社會(huì )化會(huì )受到地區文化的影響，因個(gè)人的成長(cháng)背景，社會(huì )化的過(guò)程、內容也會(huì )隨之改變。